Risk and Protective Factors of Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children and Adolescents in sub-Saharan Africa: A Systematic Review.

Commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) has emerged as a critical child protection and public health concern in recent years. While the phenomenon is prevalent globally, its impact is compounded in sub-Saharan Africa owing to the cultural and socioeconomic challenges that leave many households in the region vulnerable. The present study synthesized existing evidence using the socioecological model as a guiding framework to assess the risk and protective factors associated with CSEC in sub-Saharan Africa. A protocol for the study was published in PROSPERO (CRD42022331832) with pre-specified inclusion and exclusion criteria. Studies were screened and extracted from eight databases: PsycINFO, Scopus, Web of Science, PROQUEST (Social Science Premium), PubMed, CINAHL, EMBASE, and MEDLINE via Ovid. After an initial screening of 4,377 papers, seven studies were found eligible for the final review. The review followed the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guide for reporting systematic reviews. Included studies were appraised and rated using the Cambridge Quality Checklist and GRADE. Findings revealed risk factors, including adverse childhood experience and victimization, females aged 16 years and older, school dropouts, technology influence, child and parental alcohol use, and separation from caregivers. On the other hand, protective factors such as the number of female adolescents in a household, frequent health screening in schools, children being in school, and high parental monitoring were found to be associated with a lower risk of CSEC. Based on these findings, we recommend that interventions in sub-Saharan Africa adopt a holistic approach that addresses identified risk factors while harnessing protective factors to combat CSEC effectively.

Caregiver burden and health-related quality of life: A study of informal caregivers of older adults in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Similar to many developing countries, caregiver burden remains high in Ghana which may affect informal caregivers of older adults' health-related quality of life (HRQoL). However, no study has examined the association between caregiver burden and HRQoL among informal caregivers of older adults in Ghana to date. Understanding this association may well help to inform health and social policy measures to improve HRQoL among  informal caregivers of older adults in Ghana. Situated within a conceptual model of HRQoL, the purpose of this study was to examine the relationship  between caregiver burden and HRQoL among informal caregivers of older adults in Ghana. METHODS: We obtained cross-sectional data from informal caregiving, health, and healthcare (N = 1853) survey conducted between July and September 2022 among caregivers (≥ 18 years) of older adults (≥ 50 years) in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. The World Health Organization Impact of Caregiving Scale was used to measure caregiver burden. An 8-item short form Health Survey scale developed by the RAND Corporation and the Medical Outcomes Study was used to measure HRQoL. Generalized Linear Models were employed to estimate the association between caregiver burden and HRQoL. Beta values and standard errors were reported with a significance level of  0.05 or less. RESULTS: The mean age of the informal caregivers was 39.15 years and that of the care recipients was 75.08 years. In our final model, the results showed that caregiver burden was negatively associated with HRQoL (ß = - .286, SE = .0123, p value = 0.001). In line with the conceptual model of HRQoL, we also found that socio-economic, cultural, demographic and healthcare factors were significantly associated with HRQoL. For instance, participants with no formal education (ß = -1.204, SE= .4085, p value = 0.01), those with primary level of education (ß = -2.390, SE= .5099, p value = 0.001) or junior high school education (ß = -1.113, SE= .3903, p value= 0.01) had a significantly decreased HRQoL compared to those with tertiary level of education. Participants who were between the ages of 18-24 (ß = 2.960, SE= .6306, p value=0.001), 25-34 (ß = 1.728, SE= .5794, p value = 0.01) or 35-44 (ß = 1.604, SE= .5764, p value= 0.01) years significantly had increased HRQoL compared to those who were 65 years or above. Also, participants who did not utilize healthcare services in the past year before the survey significantly had increased HRQoL compared to those who utilized healthcare services five or more times in the past year (ß = 4.786, SE=. 4610, p value= 0.001). CONCLUSION: Consistent with our hypothesis, this study reported a significant negative association between caregiver burden and HRQoL. Our findings partially  support the conceptual model of HRQoL used in this study. We recommend that health and social policy measures to improve HRQoL among  informal caregivers of older adults should consider caregiver burden as well as other significant socio-economic, cultural, demographic, and healthcare factors.

Neglect, online invasive exploitation, and childhood sexual abuse in Hong Kong: Breaking the links.

BACKGROUND: Childhood sexual abuse (CSA) is a form of maltreatment that involves a child in sexual activity that she or he cannot fully comprehend or is unable to give informed consent to. The empirical link between child neglect and contact child sexual abuse is well established but little research examines mediators that explain this link. OBJECTIVE: This study tests online risk behaviors and unwanted sexual experiences online as sequential mediators of the neglect - CSA relationship. PARTICIPANT AND SETTING: The study uses a representative cross-sectional sample of 1097 Hong Kong adolescents. METHODS: Preacher and Hayes' (2008) non-parametric bootstrap approach was used to test three mediation hypotheses. RESULTS: Baseline logistic regression models showed neglected children had 11.2 times higher odds of reporting contact CSA (p < .001). Similarly, neglect was associated with 3.5 times higher odds of more online risk behavior (p < .001), which in turn was associated with 2.7 times higher odds of more online invasive exploitation (p < .001). Online invasive exploitation was associated with 2.7 times higher odds of reporting offline contact CSA (p < .001). The study found online risk behaviors to be a significant mediator of the relationship between neglect and online invasive exploitation (unwanted online sexual experiences). Online invasive exploitation, in turn, mediated the relationship between online risk behaviors and offline contact CSA. CONCLUSION: The findings highlight the importance of intervening against neglect as it appears to play a vital role in the etiology of contact CSA in Hong Kong.

Desistance from physical abuse in a national study of Nepal: Protective informal social control and self-compassion.

BACKGROUND: Research on the conditions under which perpetrators desist from child maltreatment has seen greater attention as part of the efforts to break the cycle of maltreatment. New theoretical insights suggest that informal actions (herein protective informal social control of child maltreatment) by network members which communicate warmth, empathy with victim distress, and promote the modeling of positive parenting practices are more likely to increase maltreatment desistance. Likewise, parents' desistance from maltreatment is theorized to impact on adolescents' (victim) cognition and self-compassion. OBJECTIVE: This study examined the relationship among protective informal social control of child maltreatment (protective ISC_CM) by social networks, physical abuse desistance, and adolescent self-compassion. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: A nationally representative sample of 1100 mothers and their adolescent children (aged 11-15) in Nepal was obtained. METHODS: Questionnaires were administered to mothers and their adolescent children independently. Hypotheses were tested using regression models with standard errors corrected for clustering within wards. RESULTS: More than 1 in 7 mothers reported perpetrating physical abuse in the past year, and 1 in every 5 adolescents reported being victims of physical abuse. Odds of abuse desistance increase by roughly 10 % for each act of protective ISC_CM reported by the mother. Also, odds of abuse desistance associated with higher adolescent self-compassion, and acts of protective ISC_CM associated with higher levels of adolescent self-compassion. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that interventions to boost desistance from maltreatment and break the cycle of abuse in Nepal, should focus on promoting protective informal social control actions.

Gendered Dimensions of Demand for Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children (CSEC) in Kathmandu, Nepal.

Breaking the demand chain for sex from minors would render supply worthless, contributing to the elimination of commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC). Using a novel sampling technique, this study reports on actual and potential adult customers of CSEC in two areas in Kathmandu (n = 466). Controlling for refusal conversion, age, education, and income, higher scores on a new Love-Fantasy Scale (LFS) were associated with increased odds of purchasing sex from young girls, as were patriarchal norms emphasizing the power of men. Further research is needed to design interventions that include aspects related to sexual fantasy for young girls to combat demand for CSEC.

The protective effects of the collective cultural value of abiriwatia against child neglect: Results from a nationally representative survey.

BACKGROUND: Over the past 20 years, there has been a growing commitment to strengthen community norms-to foster informal support for families and enhance community commitment to protect children from child abuse and neglect. The current study examined the relationship between child neglect and normative interpretations of the dominant cultural value of abiriwatia in Ghana. It was hypothesized that the norms of abiriwatia were associated with lower incidence of child neglect. METHODS: We used a random, stratified four-stage cluster design to select a nationally representative sample of 1100 female caregivers in Ghana. Norms of the cultural value of abiriwatia were measured using a new 11-item Likert scale questionnaire developed by the authors, and child neglect was measured using the Conflict Tactics Scale. RESULTS: Factor analysis of the abiriwatia scale retained three factors, community authority, collective childcare, and lineage, as the core norms of abiriwatia. We found that the abiriwatia norm of community authority was associated with fewer instances of child neglect. Norms of community responsibility for childcare were negatively associated with child neglect frequency (B = -0.31, p < .05). However, the relationship between the abiriwatia norm of lineage and child neglect was positive (B = 0.24, p < .05). CONCLUSION: The protective associations among the norms of community authority and collective childcare and child neglect suggest that traditional practices that strengthen and enforce the collective norms of abiriwatia, including storytelling, family byelaws, community durbars (community meetings), taboos, and reciprocal farming activities (nnoboa) could be protective against neglect.

Protective Community Norms and Mental Health Risks for Severe Physical Abuse: Lessons From a Nationally Representative Study of Ghana.

Although it has become axiomatic to quote an African proverb in discussions of child well-being, attempts to draw concrete and positive lessons from how African communities respond to and mitigate child maltreatment are comparatively few. This study tested the hypothesis that the collective value of Abiriwatia in Ghana, which supports legitimate norms of community obligations to care for children, could be protective against physical abuse. It also examined the claim that knowledge of the familial situation of community members, generated through Abiriwatia, may help them to act to mitigate the risk of caregiver's borderline personality disorder (BPD) features. We obtained a nationally representative sample of 1,100 female caregivers from 22 Ghanaian settlements and tested the hypotheses using multilevel models. Controlling for community-level physical abuse, living in a community with high levels of Abiriwatia childcare and community authority values is associated with lower levels of very severe physical abuse, and Abiriwatia childcare may mitigate risk from the caregiver's BPD features. Within Ghana, encouraging positive and protective aspects of traditional Ghanaian values and working to reinstate respect for these values may have positive outcomes for children. Interventions to reduce child maltreatment should be developed with reference to Abiriwatia childcare values.

Where Do We Go After Surviving the Virus? Cross-Country Documentary Analysis of the Social Consequences Faced by COVID-19 Survivors.

In this study, we attempted to move beyond the skewed discussions on stigma to unravel other social consequences that are experienced by persons who have recovered from COVID-19. We conducted a documentary review of published news reports from 14 highly ranked news portals in Ghana and Malaysia (published between 1st January 2020 and 30th August 2020) that contained personal accounts from the recovered patients about their lived experiences with the virus and social consequences encountered after recovery. Narratives from the recovered patients were extracted and analyzed following the narrative thematic analysis procedure. Common themes identified from the narratives included: 1) Stigma impacting mental health, 2) Assault and abuse 3) Experiences of treatment. The findings show the need for interprofessional collaboration between social and health care professionals such as social workers, community health workers, medical practitioners and psychologists to prevent and address issues of abuse and other social consequences experienced by COVID-19 survivors.

Dose-Response Relationship Between Protective Family Informal Social Control and Chronic Child Neglect: Does Household Size Matter?

Larger households, involving more children, are theorized as potential risk factors for child maltreatment-resource dilution theory. But qualitative evidence shows that in collective societies, like Ghana, more adult family members may act against neglect, through protective informal social control, which helps to reduce the frequency of neglect. Family members intervention in neglect situations will be more consistent and sustained due to the sanctioned collective responsibility to care for children in the community. The purpose of this study is to test the hypothesis that having more adult family members in the household, who have the will and agency to intervene, will predict less chronic neglect. A three-stage probability proportional to size cluster sample of Ghana was collected from 1,100 primary caregiving mothers. One mother was interviewed in each household, and responses were limited to one focal child. When sample was restricted to those with chronic neglect (neglect > 1), 596 mothers remained in the data. The children have experienced 11 times neglect in the past year, and lived in households with average size of 6 members. Chronic neglect was measured using the Conflict Tactics Scale. Dose-response protective informal social control by family members was measured using the newly developed context-based scale for measuring protective informal social control of child neglect (ISC_CM2). Results from the random effects regressions models showed a negative relationship between dose-response protective informal social control and chronic neglect, and the interaction with household size was negative and significant. Ghanaian families should be sensitized to take advantage of the communal living practices, extended family systems and compound housing structures, as traditional mechanisms to promote collectivity and interventions in observed acts of neglect to protect children. The evidence contradicts the resource dilution theory's conceptualization of large household as risks factors of neglect.

Collective value of Abiriwatia and protective informal social control of child neglect: Findings from a Nationally Representative Survey in Ghana.

Evidence of the protective role of informal social control by community members (family members, friends, and neighbours) in child neglect has received considerable attention. Likewise, the protective effects of informal social control interventions in neglect are theorised to be common and highly efficacious in communities that have sanctioned informal interventions through collective social values and norms. Yet, no research has examined this theoretical postulation within the field of community/neighbourhood research in child maltreatment. We tested the theory-driven hypothesis by examining the interaction effects of protective informal social control of neglect and the collective value of Abiriwatia (a collective value based on lineage with norms on collective childcare duties) against the frequency of child neglect. Data consist of 616 caregivers' self-report of child neglect in the past year, from the Ghana Families and Neighbourhood Study. Hypotheses were tested using random effects regression models with standard errors corrected for settlement/community clusters. Protective informal social control of child neglect was significantly associated with fewer neglect in the past year (B = -0.79, p < 0.05). The interaction between protective informal social control of child neglect and the collective value of Abiriwatia was negative (B = -0.07, p < 0.05). The findings suggest that strengthening the collective normative commitment to childcare would promote family members' intervention to protect against neglect situations, and their intervention can deter further acts of neglect. Community neglect prevention programmes should take advantage of the findings to strengthen community norms that sanction collective childcare duties. Community child protection committees of the Department of Social Welfare should develop social groups and informal associations to strengthen Abiriwatia in Ghana.

Addressing Filicide in Ghana: Linking Cultural Understanding With the Law Against Filicide. Does the Law Work?

Introduction: Consistent with international promulgation on the criminalization of filicide, Ghana's Children's Act 1998 (560) and the Criminal Justice Act criminalizes any form of torture against children. Yet, perpetrators of filicide in Ghana may go unpunished due to the beliefs in cultural norms that justify filicide acts. The cultural narratives of filicide can impede on the application and effectiveness of the laws of filicide. Method: The study employed a vignette approach to explore the views of 19 adults, who were parents between 69 years of age and 30 years of age, in rural and urban Ghana on the laws of filicide in Ghana and filicide intervention measures. The interviewees were provided with narratives on two different vignettes (developed based on real life cases), followed by semi-structured questions to probe the narratives. The interviews were analyzed following Fraser's narrative thematic analysis procedure. Results: The study identifies the association between cultural beliefs and the communities' understanding of the concept of filicide. Though community members are aware of the criminalization of filicide acts, the majority of them were not informed about the laws against filicide in Ghana. Addressing filicide cases within the community was the most preferred option for the participants, as they believe that some children, termed "spirit children" (SC), deserve to be killed. Resorting to spiritual intervention from concoction men emerged as the normative pathway to obtain community approval for filicide. Police interventions were considered necessary in non-spiritual related filicides. Community members were only prepared to cooperate with the law in filicide cases if the filicide act has no connection with spirituality. Conclusion: The study adds to understanding of the concept of filicide outside western societies. The importance of intensive community campaigns against filicide acts, and norms that support filicide acts, has relevance for all counties.

Caregivers' perceptions of informal social control practices to reduce child neglect: A qualitative study in Ghana.

BACKGROUND: Rational choice deterrence theory suggests that caregiving behavior, which includes abusive and neglectful behavior, can be influenced or manipulated via informal social control strategies enacted by neighbors, family members and friends in the social network. The literature identifies two forms of informal social control that have the potential to influence maltreating caregiver behavior, protective vs punitive, with the latter having more contrasting evidence related to its influence on maltreating caregiving practices. OBJECTIVE: To examine the perceptions and meanings female caregivers associate with protective and punitive informal social control strategies that have been enacted against them. METHODS: 17 female caregivers from Ghana, who self-reported their involvement in neglectful acts, were purposively selected to engage in river of life oral history narrative interviews. Narrative accounts from the caregivers were analyzed thematically using Taguette software package. RESULTS: The findings showed that protective informal social control in child neglect are interpreted via values and norms of childcare that have been institutionalized in the community. Caregivers perceived protective informal social control to have impact on their level of respect/influence, authority in the family or community, and to elicit internal consequences: shame, guilty feelings and embarrassment. Punitive informal social control approaches were considered as misplaced interventions that had ulterior motives of satisfying the neighbors' hatred/dislike of the perpetrator and quest for revenge. CONCLUSION: The findings suggest that the development of a fruitful theoretical framework to explain the effectiveness of informal social control should prioritize the social values and legitimate norms of the community. Implications for practice and theory development are discussed.

Legitimacy, incipience, and perception of informal social control of intimate partner violence: Experiment on a Korean parent sample.

Evidence from a growing research literature on the causes and effects of informal social control (ISC) and bystander interventions carried out by nonprofessionals against intimate partner violence (IPV) shows anomalies and unexplained counterintuitive findings. This study employs a new experimental vignette design to examine the hypothesis: high bystander legitimacy (in the eyes of potential perpetrators) will moderate the effects of (1) incipient ISC and (2) perceived ISC, on parent's self-estimated likelihood of perpetrating IPV. The data consist of 210 rural Korean parents randomly drawn from Kyunggi province using a three-stage cluster probability proportional to size approach. Parents were randomly assigned to low and high incipient ISC, perceived ISC, and collective legitimacy conditions, following a 2 × 2 × 2 experimental vignette approach. Hypotheses were tested using regression models with standard errors corrected for district clusters. Incipient ISC was associated with significantly less self-estimated likelihood of perpetrating IPV. An interaction between high bystander legitimacy and incipient ISC was negative (B = -8.88, p < 0.01). The interaction between perceived ISC and legitimacy was not significant. However, the interaction between perceived ISC and female gender was positively associated with self-estimated likelihood of perpetrating IPV (B = 8.61, p < 0.05). The findings suggest that the presence of a legitimate bystander (whom the potential perpetrator believes has a legitimate right to be concerned about his or her family) may deter parents from perpetrating IPV. Programs to boost ISC and bystander intervention should include modules that strengthen collective legitimacy.

Social Norms and Family Child Labor: A Systematic Literature Review.

BACKGROUND: Research has established the family as the predominant context for child labor practices. Decisions to involve children in child labor within the family or by a family member (herein family child labor) is strongly motivated by cultural beliefs that normalize child labor. This systematic review sought to synthesize evidence on the social norms that support child labor practices, and the normative interpretation of international child labor legislation/standards. METHODS: We followed the PRISMA procedure for systematic review by reviewing empirical articles published between 2000 to 2021 and contained within the four key databases: Scopus, ISI Web of Sciences, PubMed and Embase. Findings from 13 articles that met the inclusion criteria were analyzed thematically. RESULTS: The review included studies from three continents: Africa, Asia and Europe. Gender norms, informal apprenticeship norm, norms on succession and sustenance as well as obedience, were key social norms that influenced child labor practices in the family. Parents' decision to involve children in child labor was strongly influenced by the collective acceptance of some occupations (e.g., cocoa farming and fishing) as family occupations, which need to be preserved, undertaken and passed on to children. Child rights and the UNCRC principle of children's participation were considered foreign to most non-western countries and interpreted as contravention to the cherished social norm of obedience. The findings underlie the link between social norms and the common social values of resilience, hard work, and respect. CONCLUSION: The results provide foundations and target to develop normative change intervention programs to re-orient the negative interpretations of common social values and provide alternative pathways that prevent child labor within the social context.

Filicide as a cultural practice in Ghana: The qualitative understanding of a family tragedy and its implications for child protection practice.

BACKGROUND: Contrary to evidence from the Western literature, cases of filicide in Ghana are mostly unreported because they are rooted in cultural practices and hidden from the general public. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to explore the cultural context of filicide in a rural community. Particularly, to provide an understanding of the spirit child (SC) phenomenon, how the killing of a SC is performed and to provide a general understanding of filicide within a particular context. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: Four relatives of a family that engaged in a filicide incident took part in the study. The interviews were conducted in a rural community in Ghana where the incident occurred. METHODS: Short written narratives were used to explore the experiences and perceptions of relatives whose family engaged in filicide. RESULTS: Children with severe deformities are likely to be associated with matters of divinity which gives way for the conceptualization of the SC and its attendant filicide. The findings highlight the critical role of traditional healers in rural communities and the consequences of strong community beliefs and expectations that influence parents to commit filicide. CONCLUSION: The study provides directions for child protection workers to address the stigma parents face for having children with severe deformities and to provide education on child welfare legislation.

"Invisible" children: A multiple case study on the experiences and protection of hospital-stranded children.

BACKGROUND: Hospital-stranded children are defined as children who are left by parents in medical settings for over six months. These children, who legally are not classified as orphans, are excluded from existing permanent placement policies in China. Yet, little is known about this vulnerable population of children. OBJECTIVE: This study explores the experiences of hospital-stranded children and the causes for their plight, and examines the strengths and weaknesses of existing child protection practices in medical settings. METHODS: Using a multiple-case design, 20 hospital-stranded children from three children's hospitals in a first-tier Chinese city were included in this study. Sixteen hospital personnel participated in semi-structured interviews. Interview findings, case records, and field observations were analyzed using a thematic analysis approach. Current child protection practices were analyzed through a child protection system model. RESULTS: The children in this study were well cared for by the hospitals, but their rights to provision, participation, and protection were violated due to the lack of a national child protection system. Three key weaknesses of child protection practices were identified: underreporting of suspected cases, delayed action after reporting, and inadequate follow-up services. The ineffectiveness of the national child welfare system and the family-oriented cultural values in China also created barriers to the protection of hospital-stranded children. CONCLUSIONS: The findings suggest an urgent need for a national child protection system. Professional child protection training for healthcare workers and collaboration among departments within and outside hospitals are also necessary to offer a systematic protective network for hospital-stranded children.

Invasive Exploitation and the Multiplicative Hypothesis: Polyvictimization and Adolescent Depression Symptoms in Nepal.

Adverse effects of childhood maltreatment experience and adolescent depression symptoms are theorized to be more profound for adolescents who have suffered multiple maltreatments (polyvictimization). New theoretical insights into the study of polyvictimization suggest that it must be studied using a multiplicative logic, particularly when maltreatment is characterized by invasive exploitation. This study, for the first time, examined the concept of invasive exploitation in the context of polyvictimization and its association with adolescent depression symptoms. The study used a random, three stage probability proportional to size (PPS) cluster sample of 565 mother-adolescent dyads in Kathmandu, Nepal, and also examined the protective effects of maternal empathy. We hypothesized that (a) singly, the empirical categories of maltreatment (neglect, physical abuse, and child sexual abuse) would associate positively with adolescent depressive symptoms and (b) main effects held constant, the interaction effects of a child sexual abuse X neglect and a child sexual abuse X physical abuse would be positive. Regression with clustering corrections found that neglect (B = 3.17, p < .01) and sexual abuse (B = 3.48, p < .05) positively associated with adolescent depression symptoms. Results support the multiplicative invasive exploitation polyvictimization hypothesis (child sexual abuse X neglect interaction; B = 6.14, p < .05). The positive neglect X sexual abuse interaction is consistent with the theory that sexual abuse is distinct as invasive exploitation, and demonstrates that the multiplicative hypothesis can be fruitfully applied to the study of polyvictimization. Interventions targeting polyvictims with experience of invasive exploitation and studies aiming to provide deeper insights into sexual abuse as invasive exploitation are needed.

Child polyvictimization in Zongo communities in Ghana: Young people's reflections on systemic resilience enablers.

PURPOSE: Polyvictimization is often commonplace for young people living in violent communities. The situation is no different for young people in Ghanaian Zongo communities where poverty, social disorder and social vices are prevalent due to structural reasons. OBJECTIVE: Using the social ecology approach to resilience, the study sought the perspectives of young people about how systemic aspects of community contribute to their positive development in high-risk communities. METHODS: Following the short narrative approach, 23 young people ages 18-24 from two Zongo communities in Ghana were engaged in qualitative interviews. FINDINGS: Cultural values of solidarity and peer support were common systemic enablers that facilitated young peoples' resilience. These enablers provided context and resources which ensured their survival in cases of neglect and abuse. Cultural values of solidarity exemplified by care for each other among residents created a safe environment and cultural capital contributed to the young peoples' resilience. Additionally, the "base" within Zongo communities provided a social structure that enabled peer support and promoted young peoples' resilience in the face of polyvictimization experiences. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS: The findings shift the resilience discourse from a conception of personality traits to one of collective aspects of community systems. They also identify cultural values of solidarity within the community that provide cultural capital for the social functioning of young people dealing with polyvictimization in high-risk environments. The findings provide pathways for professionals to promote resilience and develop resilience-oriented primary preventive measures for adolescents living in high-risk environments in Africa.

Regulating the traditional kinship care practice in Ghana: Reflections from young people with kinship care experience.

BACKGROUND: Kinship care has become a favourable alternative care option for orphans and vulnerable children without adequate parental care in Ghana. However, kinship care practices in Ghana are considered informal cultural practices without formal regulations. The absence of formal regulations could have consequences on the health and development of children due to the lack of proper supervision and empirical assessment of children's needs. In line with recent policy discussions on mechanisms to regulate informal kinship care practices, this study aimed to identify how the State could be involved in improving kinship care experience for children. METHODS: Qualitative in-depth interviews were conducted with 22 young persons (aged 18-23) who had been received into kinship care to share their experiences on how the State could be involved in improving kinship care experience for children. Narratives from the young people were analysed following the constructivist grounded theory approach. RESULTS: Introduction of a welfare scheme for kinship caregivers, policy on child care, provision of start-up capital and training for caregivers, were measures suggested by the young people to improve kinship care practice. Providing start-up capital to kinship caregivers was identified to mitigate caregivers' unemployment challenges, which could have ripple effects on the well-being of children by escalating caregiver stress. CONCLUSION: The study's findings suggest that the State has a significant role to ensure that caregivers are equipped with the needed resources to provide adequate care for children. Regulating kinship care practices should embrace a strength-based empowerment model that builds on the capacity of the caregivers to ensure better outcomes for children. Studies that explore the views of policy makers and caregivers in a larger sample may yield promising results to complement the current findings.

Neighbourhood collective efficacy and protective effects on child maltreatment: A systematic literature review.

Research within the community-based child protection approach has used the neighbourhood collective efficacy theory of social disorganisation to focus on investigating the social conditions and processes that facilitate residents' ability to intervene or protect children from parental maltreatment. However, much of the research into the protective effects of neighbourhood collective efficacy on child maltreatment has yielded mixed results. In a review of empirical studies published between 2008 and 2019, we investigated the sources of these mixed findings and the pathways through which neighbourhood collective efficacy could protect children from parental maltreatment. Following the PRISMA guidelines for systematic literature reviews yielded 21 empirical research articles on the subject that were critically examined in line with the theoretical underpinning and research questions. Evidence suggests both direct and sequential pathways in which increased social cohesion and informal social control (ISC) protect against parents' maltreatment behaviours. Higher levels of neighbourhood social cohesion were found to be a potential primary preventive strategy against risk factors for maltreatment. The use of ISC measures from the traditional collective efficacy scale account for the mixed findings and limited research on the direct and indirect forms of ISC. Moreover, the transactional processes posited by collective efficacy theory that link neighbourhood social cohesion to ISC have yet to be examined and confirmed with respect to child maltreatment. Studies addressing these theoretical and methodological gaps are encouraged, in particular, studies examining ISC dimensions using item measures of specific residents' actions within child maltreatment behaviours. The results provide implications for community-based child protection practice, in terms of promoting cultural norms and values that foster social cohesion and facilitate ISC interventions within neighbourhoods.